China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. (CHPXF) Stock Analysis
For informational purposes only. Not financial advice. Analysis by Sedat ANAK, Founder & Editor-in-Chief | AI-powered analysis. Data sourced from SEC filings and institutional-grade financial providers. Editorially reviewed. Not financial advice.
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. (CHPXF) trades at $3.65 with AI Score 61/100 (Grade B+). China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co. , Ltd. Market cap: $35.1B, Sector: Financial services.
Price as of Aug 20, 2026 · Last analyzed: Jun 14, 2026Analyst Coverage for CHPXF: CHPXF does not currently have published analyst price targets in our coverage universe. This is common for smaller-cap names with limited Wall Street coverage. In the absence of analyst consensus, our AI model evaluates CHPXF against Financial Services peers across nine fundamental dimensions and assigns a mixed fundamental profile based on the underlying data.
CHPXF: 2/3 scored disciplines lean bullish. Dominant signal: Seth Klarman bearish.
How is this calculated? →Why this analysis is different
- A 9-signal quantitative MoonshotScore built from filings, insider activity, and market data — computed from the numbers, not from opinion.
- An AI Council read across up to eight perspectives — value, macro, quantitative, and momentum lenses — that shows where they disagree instead of averaging the tension away.
- Figures come straight from FMP and Yahoo Finance filings data. The AI writes the narrative around the numbers — it never edits the numbers.
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. (CHPXF) Financial Services Profile
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. operates as a diversified financial services provider in the People's Republic of China, specializing in life, health, and property & casualty insurance, complemented by asset management and elderly care services. The company maintains a broad distribution network across a large and evolving domestic market.
What Is the Investment Thesis for CHPXF?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. presents a profile characterized by its significant market capitalization of $35.1B and a P/E ratio of 5.3, suggesting a potentially undervalued position relative to its earnings. The company's robust Profit Margin of 12.3% and a 100.0% Gross Margin underscore its operational efficiency within the insurance sector. A notable dividend yield of 3.29% indicates a commitment to shareholder returns. The investment thesis centers on CHPXF's entrenched position within China's expanding insurance market, driven by increasing disposable incomes and a growing awareness of financial protection. The company's diversified product portfolio, spanning life, health, property, and casualty insurance, coupled with strategic ventures into asset management and elderly care services, positions it to capitalize on evolving demographic and economic trends. The ongoing expansion of its multi-channel distribution network, including digital platforms, is expected to enhance market penetration and customer acquisition. While the negative Beta of -0.06 suggests low correlation with broader market movements, the company's sustained profitability and dividend payouts are key value drivers for long-term investors seeking exposure to the Chinese financial services sector.
Based on FMP financials and quantitative analysis
CHPXF Key Highlights
Market Capitalization of $35.1B, positioning it as a significant player in the Chinese financial services sector.
- A P/E ratio of 5.3, which is below the industry average, potentially indicating an attractive valuation.
- Profit Margin of 12.3%, demonstrating strong profitability from its core insurance and diversified operations.
- Gross Margin of 100.0%, reflecting efficient underwriting and cost management within its insurance segments.
- Dividend Yield of 3.29%, providing a consistent return to shareholders, indicative of financial stability.
Who Are CHPXF's Competitors?
CHPXF is benchmarked below against 8 industry peers on price, market cap, and our AI MoonshotScore.
| Company | Price | Change | Market Cap | AI Score |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PUK Prudential plc | $27.65 | -0.77% | $34.4B | 67 |
| DCNSF Dai-ichi Life Holdings, Inc. | $11.00 | +0.00% | $39.6B | 50 |
| DLICY Dai-ichi Life Holdings, Inc. | $22.12 | -1.78% | $39.8B | 47 |
| PRU Prudential Financial, Inc. | $121.54 | -0.56% | $42.2B | 95 |
| NWWCF New China Life Insurance Company Ltd. | $5.97 | -1.45% | $27.3B | 49 |
| MNUFF Manulife Financial Corporation | $14.50 | +0.00% | $24.2B | 49 |
| FUIZF Fubon Financial Holding Co., Ltd. | $15.93 | +0.00% | $22.3B | 50 |
| GWLIF Great-West Lifeco Inc. | $63.94 | -1.75% | $57.2B | 54 |
AI Score by Stock Expert AI · Price data: FMP / Yahoo Finance
What Are CHPXF's Key Strengths?
Broad and diversified product and service portfolio across insurance, asset management, and healthcare.
- Extensive multi-channel distribution network reaching a wide customer base across China.
- Strong operational efficiency reflected in a 100.0% Gross Margin and 12.3% Profit Margin.
- Significant market capitalization of $35.1B, indicating substantial scale and financial backing.
- Strategic positioning in emerging sectors like elderly care and agricultural insurance.
What Are CHPXF's Weaknesses?
Reliance on the economic and regulatory environment of the People's Republic of China.
- Potential for increased competition from both domestic and international players in a growing market.
- Exposure to investment market volatility through its asset management and insurance fund investment activities.
- Negative Beta of -0.06, which might indicate a complex relationship with broader market movements or specific risk factors not fully captured.
- Unknown disclosure status on the OTC market, potentially impacting investor confidence and transparency.
What Could Drive CHPXF Stock Higher?
CHPXF catalyst: **Favorable Regulatory Environment**: Potential for new government policies in China that support the growth of the insurance sector, particularly in health, pension, or agricultural insurance, could boost CHPXF's market penetration and profitability.
- **Expansion of Digital Sales Channels**: Continued investment and optimization of internet sales and digital platforms are expected to enhance customer acquisition efficiency and reduce operational costs, driving revenue growth and market share.
- **Growth in Elderly Care Services**: As China's population ages, the company's strategic focus and expansion in elderly service and medical consulting are anticipated to capture increasing demand, diversifying revenue streams and leveraging demographic trends.
- **Product Innovation in Specialized Insurance**: The introduction of new, tailored insurance products, particularly in areas like advanced health coverage, long-term care, or specialized agricultural risk management, could attract new customer segments and increase premium income.
- **Strategic Asset Management Performance**: Consistent strong performance in the management of capital and insurance funds, coupled with growth in third-party asset management, can significantly contribute to non-underwriting income and overall profitability.
What Are the Key Risks for CHPXF?
Financial-distress signal — its Altman Z-Score of -0.58 sits in the distress zone (elevated bankruptcy risk).
- **Regulatory and Policy Changes in China**: The financial services sector in China is subject to evolving regulatory frameworks. Any adverse changes in insurance regulations, capital requirements, or investment policies could impact CHPXF's operations and profitability.
- **Economic Slowdown in China**: A significant slowdown in China's economic growth could reduce disposable incomes, leading to decreased demand for insurance products and potentially impacting the value of the company's investment portfolio.
- **Investment Market Volatility**: As a major insurer and asset manager, CHPXF's profitability is exposed to fluctuations in capital markets. Adverse movements in interest rates, equity markets, or bond yields could negatively affect investment income and asset valuations.
- **Intensified Competition**: The Chinese insurance market is competitive, with numerous domestic and international players. Increased competition could lead to pricing pressures, higher customer acquisition costs, and erosion of market share.
- **OTC Trading Risks**: The company's 'OTC Other' classification and 'Unknown' disclosure status present risks of lower liquidity, wider bid-ask spreads, and limited access to timely financial information, potentially affecting investor confidence and share price stability.
What Are the Growth Opportunities for CHPXF?
- Growth opportunity 1: **Expansion in Elderly Care and Medical Services**: China Pacific Insurance's involvement in elderly service and medical consulting services, alongside seniors and disabled care services, represents a significant growth avenue. With China's rapidly aging population, the demand for comprehensive eldercare and health-related financial products is projected to surge. The company's early positioning in this sector, as of 2026, provides a competitive advantage in a market driven by long-term demographic shifts.
- Growth opportunity 2: **Digital Transformation and Internet Sales**: The company's existing use of internet sales as a distribution channel offers substantial room for growth. Enhancing digital platforms, mobile applications, and online customer service can significantly reduce operational costs, expand market reach to younger, tech-savvy demographics, and improve customer engagement. As of 2026, the ongoing digitalization of financial services in China continues to accelerate, presenting an opportunity for CHPXF to invest further in AI-driven underwriting, personalized product offerings, and seamless online claims processing, thereby increasing efficiency and market share across its insurance segments.
- Growth opportunity 3: **Diversification and Growth in Agricultural Insurance**: China Pacific Insurance's offering of agricultural insurance positions it strategically within a critical, yet often underserved, sector of the Chinese economy. With government initiatives aimed at modernizing agriculture and ensuring food security, the demand for specialized insurance products protecting against crop failure, livestock loss, and natural disasters is expected to grow. As of 2026, expanding the reach and product sophistication of its agricultural insurance offerings, potentially through partnerships with local governments and agricultural cooperatives, could unlock a substantial market segment with unique risk profiles and steady demand.
- Growth opportunity 4: **Enhanced Asset Management Services**: The company's involvement in the management of capital and insurance funds, outsourcing of fund management, and other asset management activities represents a robust growth driver. As the Chinese economy matures and personal wealth accumulates, the demand for sophisticated investment and wealth management solutions will increase. By expanding its asset management capabilities, attracting third-party funds, and developing innovative investment products, CHPXF can generate higher fee-based income, diversify its revenue streams beyond traditional underwriting, and strengthen its overall financial ecosystem. This area is expected to see sustained growth throughout the late 2020s.
- Growth opportunity 5: **Deepening Penetration in Tier-2 and Tier-3 Cities**: While headquartered in Shanghai, China Pacific Insurance has significant potential to deepen its market penetration in China's vast network of Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities. These regions are experiencing rapid economic development, urbanization, and a burgeoning middle class, leading to increased demand for insurance and financial services. By strategically expanding its physical presence, agent networks, and localized product offerings in these areas, CHPXF can tap into underserved markets. This geographical expansion strategy, ongoing as of 2026, allows the company to capture new customer segments and build long-term relationships in high-growth regional economies.
What Threats Does CHPXF Face?
- Intensifying regulatory scrutiny and potential policy changes within China's financial services sector.
- Economic slowdowns or downturns in China impacting insurance demand and investment returns.
- Increased competition leading to pricing pressures and reduced market share.
- Natural disasters or widespread health crises leading to higher claims payouts in property, casualty, and health segments.
- Cybersecurity risks and data breaches impacting customer trust and operational integrity.
What Are CHPXF's Competitive Advantages?
- **Established Market Presence**: Founded in 1991, the company has a long operating history and an established brand reputation within the People's Republic of China's competitive insurance market.
- **Diversified Product Portfolio**: A comprehensive range of life, health, property, casualty, and specialized insurance products, coupled with asset management and elderly care services, caters to broad market needs.
- **Extensive Distribution Network**: Utilizes a multi-channel approach including direct sales, agents, brokers, bancassurance, telemarketing, and internet sales, ensuring wide reach across China.
- **Integrated Financial Services**: The combination of insurance underwriting with robust asset management capabilities allows for synergistic operations and diversified revenue streams.
- **Strategic Diversification**: Early entry into high-growth areas like elderly care and medical services positions the company to capitalize on significant demographic trends in China.
What Does CHPXF Do?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd., founded in 1991 and headquartered in Shanghai, People's Republic of China, has evolved into a comprehensive financial services conglomerate. The company's core operations are segmented into Life and Health Insurance, Property and Casualty Insurance, and Other Businesses, reflecting its broad market reach and diversified offerings. In the Life and Health Insurance segment, the company provides a wide array of products including traditional life insurance, health insurance, and accident insurance, catering to both individual and group needs. This segment also encompasses individual and group pension and annuity products, addressing long-term financial planning and retirement solutions for its clientele. The Property and Casualty Insurance segment offers essential coverage such as liability insurance, credit and guarantee insurance, short-term health and casualty insurance, and comprehensive property insurance. A notable offering within this segment is agricultural insurance, which supports the nation's vital agricultural sector. Beyond its primary insurance activities, China Pacific Insurance is deeply involved in the management of capital and insurance funds, providing outsourcing for fund management, and engaging in other asset management activities, including advisory services. This financial expertise allows the company to optimize its investment portfolios and offer value-added services. The 'Other Businesses' segment further diversifies its revenue streams, encompassing property management and construction, real estate activities, and a growing focus on elderly service and medical consulting services, as well as seniors and disabled care services. This expansion into healthcare and eldercare reflects a strategic response to China's demographic shifts. The company employs a multi-channel distribution strategy, selling its products directly, and through a robust network of insurance agents and brokers, bancassurance partnerships, telemarketing, and increasingly, internet sales, ensuring broad accessibility across the vast Chinese market.
What Products and Services Does CHPXF Offer?
- Offers life, health, and accident insurance products to individuals and groups.
- Provides liability insurance, credit and guarantee insurance, and short-term health and casualty insurance.
- Sells property insurance and specialized agricultural insurance.
- Manages individual and group pension and annuity products for long-term financial planning.
- Engages in capital and insurance funds management, including outsourcing and advisory services.
- Operates in property management, construction, and real estate activities.
- Provides elderly service and medical consulting services, as well as seniors and disabled care services.
- Distributes products through agents, brokers, bancassurance, telemarketing, and internet sales.
How Does CHPXF Make Money?
- Generates premium income from underwriting various life, health, property, and casualty insurance policies.
- Earns investment income from managing its substantial insurance funds and capital, including asset management for third parties.
- Collects fees from providing fund management outsourcing and asset management advisory services.
- Derives revenue from 'Other Businesses' such as property management, real estate, and elderly care services.
- Utilizes a multi-channel distribution strategy to reach a broad customer base and optimize sales efficiency.
What Industry Does CHPXF Operate In?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. operates within the dynamic and rapidly expanding financial services sector in the People's Republic of China, specifically within the life and property & casualty insurance industries. The Chinese insurance market is characterized by substantial growth potential, driven by a large population, increasing urbanization, rising disposable incomes, and a growing middle class seeking greater financial security and wealth management solutions. This environment fosters increased demand for life, health, and property insurance products. CHPXF's comprehensive offerings, including traditional insurance, pension products, and specialized agricultural insurance, position it to capture various segments of this evolving market. The competitive landscape includes both state-owned enterprises and private insurers, with competition intensifying across product innovation, distribution efficiency, and customer service. CHPXF's strategic diversification into asset management and elderly care services aligns with broader industry trends addressing China's aging population and demand for integrated financial and healthcare solutions, allowing it to maintain relevance and competitive edge.
Who Are CHPXF's Key Customers?
- Individual consumers seeking life, health, accident, and property insurance, as well as pension products.
- Corporate clients and groups requiring liability, credit, guarantee, and property insurance solutions.
- Agricultural enterprises and farmers needing specialized agricultural insurance coverage.
- High-net-worth individuals and institutional clients utilizing asset management and wealth advisory services.
- Elderly individuals and their families seeking care services and medical consulting.
Forward Outlook
Wall Street analysts project China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. revenue of about $464.45B for fiscal 2026, with EPS near $5.89. The estimate reflects 6 contributing analysts.
Quarterly Financial Performance: China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd.
Revenue for China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. came in at $91.36B during Q1 2026, a 2.5% improvement versus the preceding quarter. The company recorded net income of $10.04B, with diluted EPS of $0.94. Quarter-over-quarter revenue has been mixed, typical for a large-cap company operating in Financial Services. Across the four most recent quarters, CHPXF averaged $1.18 in diluted EPS.
CHPXF Valuation & Market Position
With a $35.1B market cap, China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. sits in the large-cap segment of the market. Relative to its peer group, CHPXF's quantitative score of 61/100 is roughly in line with the peer average of 62/100.
Key Financial Metrics
Return on equity for China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. stands at 18.2%, a gauge of how efficiently it converts shareholder capital into profit. Return on assets is 1.7%, showing how much profit it generates from its asset base. CHPXF trades at a trailing price-to-earnings ratio of 5.33, below the Financial Services sector average of ~18x. Its free cash flow yield is 85.1%, a gauge of the cash the business throws off relative to its market value. A current ratio of 0.06 means current liabilities exceed short-term assets, a liquidity point worth watching. Its earnings yield is 18.8%, the inverse of the P/E and a quick read on earnings relative to price.
Financial Health
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd.'s Piotroski F-Score is 5/9, a 9-point checklist of profitability, leverage and efficiency — a middling fundamental profile. Its Altman Z-Score of -0.58 places it in the distress zone, a signal of elevated financial risk.
Earnings Track Record
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. has beaten Wall Street's EPS estimate in 4 of its last 8 reported quarters — more hits than misses. Reported results have landed about 5.8% below estimates on average.
Company Profile
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. operates in the Insurance - Diversified industry within the Financial Services sector. It is headquartered in Shanghai, CN. The company is led by CEO John MacKenzie. CHPXF has traded publicly since 2011.
CHPXF Financials
Fundamental Snapshot
Based on FMP financials and quantitative analysis · FY 2025
Bull Case vs Bear Case
Bull Case
- Recent insider buying suggests confidence in the company's future prospects, which is always a good sign.
- The community seems to be focusing on the long-term growth potential within the Chinese insurance market.
- There's a perception that CHPXF is undervalued compared to its peers, making it an attractive investment.
- Positive regulatory changes in China could benefit the insurance sector, boosting CHPXF's performance.
Bear Case
- Negative sentiment is building due to concerns about the Chinese economy's slowdown and its impact on insurance demand.
- Some community members are worried about increased competition in the Chinese insurance market.
- Recent market developments suggest potential regulatory headwinds for insurance companies operating in China.
- There's a growing fear that CHPXF's growth might be unsustainable given current economic conditions.
AI-generated arguments based on insider flow, news sentiment and technicals — not financial advice · March 2026
Recent Quarterly Results
| Quarter | Revenue | Net Income | EPS |
|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 2026 | $91.36B | $10.04B | $0.94 |
| Q4 2025 | $89.14B | $7.80B | $0.10 |
| Q3 2025 | $143.32B | $17.82B | $1.80 |
| Q2 2025 | $105.78B | $18.26B | $1.90 |
Based on FMP financials and quantitative analysis
CHPXF Latest News
No recent news available for CHPXF.
CHPXF Analyst Consensus
Consensus Rating
Aggregated Buy/Hold/Sell recommendations from Benzinga, Yahoo Finance, and Finnhub for CHPXF.
Price Targets
Wall Street price target analysis for CHPXF.
CHPXF MoonshotScore
What does this score mean?
The MoonshotScore rates CHPXF 0-100 on quantitative fundamentals — growth, financial health, valuation, momentum, and risk.
Leadership: Yonggang Zhao
Chief Executive Officer
Unknown
Track Record: Unknown
CHPXF OTC Market Information
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. trades on the OTC market under the 'OTC Other' tier. This tier typically includes companies that do not meet the disclosure or financial standards for higher OTC tiers like OTCQX or OTCQB, or those that choose not to provide extensive public information. Unlike stocks listed on major exchanges such as NYSE or NASDAQ, which have stringent listing requirements regarding financial reporting, corporate governance, and minimum share prices, 'OTC Other' companies face significantly fewer regulatory obligations. This can result in less transparency and potentially higher risk for investors, as comprehensive, standardized financial disclosures may not be readily available or frequently updated.
- OTC Tier: OTC Other
- **Limited Transparency**: The 'Unknown' disclosure status means investors may have limited access to timely and comprehensive financial reports, making informed decision-making difficult.
- **Lower Liquidity**: Trading on the OTC market, particularly in the 'OTC Other' tier, typically results in lower trading volumes and wider bid-ask spreads, making it harder to buy or sell shares efficiently.
- **Price Volatility**: Reduced liquidity and less public information can contribute to greater price volatility, exposing investors to more significant and rapid fluctuations in share value.
- **Regulatory Oversight**: OTC markets generally have less stringent regulatory oversight compared to major exchanges, which can expose investors to higher risks related to corporate governance and investor protection.
- **Information Asymmetry**: The lack of consistent and standardized disclosures can create information asymmetry, where insiders may have more knowledge than public investors, potentially leading to unfair trading advantages.
- Verify the company's latest available financial statements and annual reports, if any, directly from official sources.
- Research any news or press releases issued by the company to understand recent developments and operational updates.
- Assess the company's business model and competitive landscape within the Chinese insurance sector.
- Investigate the company's management team and their track record, if information is publicly available.
- Understand the specific risks associated with investing in an OTC-traded company with unknown disclosure status.
- Consult independent financial analysts or research reports that may cover the company, if available.
- Evaluate the company's dividend history and sustainability, given the provided dividend yield.
- **Established Founding Date**: Founded in 1991, indicating a long operational history.
- **Significant Employee Base**: Employs 94,990 individuals, suggesting a large-scale, established organization.
- **Diversified Business Operations**: Offers a wide range of insurance, asset management, and other services, indicating a robust and complex business structure.
- **Headquartered in Shanghai, CN**: A major financial hub, suggesting a professional operating environment.
- **Substantial Market Capitalization**: A market cap of $35.1B points to a large, recognized entity despite its OTC listing.
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. Financial Services Stock: Key Questions Answered
What does the AI Score mean for CHPXF?
CHPXF holds an AI Score of 61/100 (Grade: B+). This is an educational research signal, not a buy or sell recommendation. China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. is a major Chinese insurer offering a comprehensive suite of life, health, property, and casualty insurance products, alongside asset management …
What does China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. do?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. is a comprehensive financial services provider operating primarily in the People's Republic of China. Its core business revolves around offering a broad spectrum of insurance products, segmented into Life and Health Insurance, and Property and Casualty Insurance. This includes traditional life, health, and accident policies, as well as liability, credit, property, and agricultural insurance.
How sensitive is CHPXF to interest rate changes?
As an insurance company, China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. is inherently sensitive to interest rate changes, primarily through its investment portfolio and the pricing of its insurance products. On the asset side, rising interest rates can positively impact the company's investment income, as new investments and reinvestments of maturing assets can yield higher returns, thereby boosting overall profitability.
How does China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. make money in financial services?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. generates revenue through several key streams within the financial services sector. Its primary source is premium income derived from the underwriting of a diverse range of insurance policies, including life, health, accident, property, liability, credit, and agricultural insurance. This involves collecting premiums from policyholders in exchange for assuming various risks.
What are the main risks for CHPXF?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. faces several notable risks. A primary concern is its exposure to regulatory and policy changes within China's financial services sector, which could impact operational parameters, capital requirements, or product offerings.
What are the key factors to evaluate for CHPXF?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. (CHPXF) holds an AI score of 61/100 (moderate). P/E: 5.3x vs the S&P 500's ~20-25x. Not financial advice.
How frequently does CHPXF data refresh on this page?
CHPXF's price was last updated on Aug 20, 2026 and refreshes on page view during U.S. market hours — it is not a real-time exchange feed. Fundamentals update after quarterly filings; the MoonshotScore recalculates nightly; news aggregates continuously.
What has driven CHPXF's recent stock price performance?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. (CHPXF) moves on earnings results, analyst revisions, sector rotation, and market sentiment. Notable catalyst: Broad and diversified product and service portfolio across insurance, asset management, and healthcare. See the News tab for the latest drivers. Past performance does not predict future results.
Should investors consider CHPXF overvalued or undervalued right now?
China Pacific Insurance (Group) Co., Ltd. (CHPXF) trades at 5.3x earnings. Compare P/E, P/S, and EV/EBITDA against sector peers for a full view.
Disclaimer: This content is for informational purposes only and does not constitute investment advice. Always do your own research and consult a financial advisor.
Official Resources
Data provided for informational purposes only.
- No FMP PEER TICKERS were provided in the source data, therefore no specific competitors could be listed.
- Details for CEO background and track record were not provided in the source data, hence marked as 'Unknown'.
- CEO title inferred from 'CEO/LEADERSHIP' context in source data.